BASIC COOKING PRINCIPLES......

HEAT AND FOOD

To cook food means to heat it in order to make certain changes in it. Skillful cooks know exactly what changes they want to make and what they have to do in order to effect the changes. To learn these cooking skills, it is important to know how and why foods behave in a particular manner when they are heated.

Effects of Heat on Food:

Foods are composed of protein, fats, carbohydrates and water plus trace elements like minerals, vitamins, pigments and flavor elements. It is important to understand how these elements react when heated and when mixed with each other. You must understand why foods behave as they do and then you can get them to behave, as you want them to.

PROTEINS

1.      Protein is a major component of meat, fish, poultry, egg and milk. It is present in smaller amounts in nuts, beans and grain.

2.      As proteins are heated, they become firm and coagulate. As the temperature increases, they shrink, become firmer and lose more moisture. Exposure of proteins to excessive heat toughens them and makes them dry. Most proteins complete coagulation at 160-185F (71-85C).

3.      Connective tissues are special proteins that are present in meats. Meats with a great deal of connective are tough, but some connective tissues dissolve when cooked slowly with moisture.

4.      Acids such as lemon juice, vinegar and tomato help to speed coagulation and also help dissolve some connective tissues.

CARBOHYDRATES

1.      Starches and sugars are both carbohydrates. Both compounds are present in foods in many different forms. They are found in fruits, vegetables and grain plus in beans and nuts. Meats and fish contain only very small amount of carbohydrates.

2.      For a chef, the two most important changes in carbohydrates caused by heat are caramelization and gelatinization.

1.      Caramelization is the browning of sugars. The browning of seared meats and the golden crusts of bread loafs are forms of caramelization.

2.      Gelatinization occurs when starches absorb water and swell. This is a major principle in the making of sauces and the production of bread and pastries.

3.      Acids inhibit gelatinization.

FRUITS & VEGETABLE FIBER

1.      Fiber is the name of a group of complex substances that give structure and firmness to plants. This fiber cannot be digested.

2.      The softening of fruit and vegetables in cooking is the part breakdown of this fiber.

3.      Sugar makes fiber more firms. Fruits cooked in sugar remain more firm.

4.      Baking soda and other alkalis make fiber softer. Vegetables should not be cooked with baking soda because they become mushy and also lose their color and the vitamin content.

FATS

1.      Fats are present in meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk products nuts and whole grain and to a lesser extent in vegetables and fruit. Fats are also important as a cooking medium and for frying.

2.      Fats could either be solid or liquid at room temperature. Liquid fats are called oils. Melting points of solid fats vary.

3.      When fats are heated, they begin to breakdown. When hot enough, they deteriorate rapidly and begin to smoke. The temperature at which this happens is called the smoke point and it varies for different fats and oils.

MINERALS, VITAMINS, PIGMENTS

1.      Minerals and vitamins are important to the nutritional quality of the food. Pigments are important to a food’s appearance.

2.      All these components may be leached out, or dissolved away from foods during cooking.

3.      Vitamins and pigments may also be destroyed by heat, by long cooking and by other elements present during cooking.

4.      It is important, then, to select cooking methods that preserve, as much as possible, a food’s nutrients and appearance. These will always be a consideration when cooking techniques are involved.

HEAT TRANSFER

In order for food to be cooked, heat must be transferred from the heat source (such as a gas flame or heating element coil) to and through the food. Understanding the way in which heat is transferred and the sped at which it is transferred helps to control the cooking process. Heat could be transferred by Conduction, Convection or Radiation.

Conduction – occurs in two ways:

1.      When heat moves directly from one item to something touching it.

2.      When heat moves from one part of something to an adjacent part of the same item.

3.      Different materials conduct heat at different speeds. Heat moves rapidly through copper and aluminum, more slowly through stainless steel and slower yet in glass and porcelain. Air is a very poor conductor of heat.

Convection – Convection occurs when the movement of air, steam or liquid (including hot fat) spreads heats. There are two types of convection:

1.      Natural. Hot liquids and gases rise, while cooler ones sink. Thus in any oven, kettle of water or deep fat fryer there is a constant natural circulation that distributes the heat.

2.      Mechanical. In convection ovens and steamers, fans speed the circulation of heat. Thus the heat is circulated much faster and more evenly and thus the food cooks faster.

3.      Stirring is a mechanical form of convection. Thick liquids cannot circulate as quickly as thin ones, so the rate of natural circulation is slower.

Radiation - Occurs when energy is transferred by waves from the source to the food. The waves themselves are not actually heat energy but are changed into heat energy when they strike the food being cooked. There are two types of radiation used in the kitchen:

1.      Infrared. Broiling is the most familiar example in infrared cooking. In a broiler, an electric element or a ceramic element heated by a gas flame becomes so hot it gives off infrared radiation. Which cooks the food? There are also high intensity infrared ovens, designed to heat food rapidly.

2.      Microwave. In microwave cooking, the radiation generated by the oven penetrates part way into the food, where it agitates the molecules of water. The friction caused by this agitation creates intense heat, which cooks the food. Because microwave radiation affects only water molecules, a completely waterless material will not heat up in the microwave. Plates become hot only because of the conduction of heat from the food. Also, because microwaves penetrate no more than 2” into the foods, heat is transferred to the center of large pieces by conduction.

COOKING TIMES

It takes time to heat a food to the desires temperature, the temperature at which food is done (meaning the desired changes have taken place). This time is affected by three factors.

1. Cooking temperature

This means the temperature of the air in the oven, the surface of the griddle,

or the liquid in which the food is cooking.

2. The speed of heat transfer

Different cooking methods transfer heat at different rates. Frying and sautéing are faster than roasting.

3. Size, Temperature and individual characteristics of the food

For example –

1.      A small piece of meat cooks faster than a large one.

2.      A chilled piece of fish takes longer to broil than one at room temperature.

3.      Seafood cooks faster than lamb and chicken.

4.      Because there are so many variables, it is impossible to determine the cooking time in a recipe. The chef must use his or her judgement to make the final evaluation of the doneness of the food.

CONVENIENCE FOODS............

CONVENIENCE FOODS

Introduction:

Today the term "convenience foods" is widely used in the catering industry. This is probably due to the rapid progress in food technology over the past decade. The term "convenience foods", strictly translated, refers to any type of food, where some stage of preparation has been completed beforehand.

Processes by which convenience foods are classified:

Accelerated Freeze-drying: By using high-vacuum techniques it is possible to produce specific conditions of temperature and pressure which create ideal conditions for dehydration of food without the collapse of cells. There are only a limited amount of foods on the market, as production costs are relatively high.

  

1.      Additives: Non nutritive substances added to food to improve its appearance, texture, flavor and storage properties.

2.      Aseptic Canning: A newer development in canning designed for these products adversely affected by heat within sealed containers. Products like fruit juices are sterilized then placed into sterile cans under microbe free conditions.

3.      "Boil in the bag” Ready food: A convenience entrée or vegetable commodity. Portioned items are packed in special plastic bags, sealed then frozen. To reconstitute, the unopened bag is dropped into boiling water for a predetermined period.

4.      Dehydration: A method of preserving food by reducing the moisture content to such a level those microbes cannot grow and reproduce. The methods used depend on the food, but popular techniques include tunnel, roller and spray drying. Nutritionally the products lose little value, but the texture, especially in fruits and vegetables, is suspect.

5.      Dehydro-freezing: A method of preservation where the moisture content of certain food is reduced by 70% then quick-frozen. Because the cells do not collapse, the product has good texture retention. Product must be stored in frozen state.

6.      Freezer Burn: In any frozen storage room there is a steady removal of moisture from unprotected foods which may result in unpleasant irreversible changes to the color, texture, flavor and nutritive values.

7.      Freezing: Foods freeze over a wide range of temperatures, although freezing points are unidentifiable. Because of high water content in many foods, they freeze at temperatures between 32F and 25F.

8.      Preservation: Stored foods tend to deteriorate under the influence of its own enzymes, chemical action and through the growth and reproduction of micro-organisms. The techniques developed for preservation aim to retard these reactions or destroy the cause of deterioration.

9.      Spray Drying: A method of dehydrating food by spraying a slurry of the commodity into a hot air chamber, which dries the material immediately forming a powder.

10.  Smoked Preservation: This process is applied to a wide variety of raw and prepared foods. E.g. smoked fish. 

Types of Products:

Apart from the different methods already mentioned which produce the greater part of convenience foods in dry, quick frozen and canned foods, there are many ready mixed dehydrated foods or ordinary dry mixes. Many of these products are suitable for large scale catering. When used with imagination and sometimes methods from conventional cookery, a much wider variety of dishes can be produced. E.g. instant soups.

Convenience foods can be used to advantages in the following situations:

·         Where you have staff shortages or staff recruitment problems.

·         Where you haven’t enough storage space for bulky fresh products.

·         Where you have a problem in obtaining a regular fresh supply of commodities (because of seasonal shortages, too high a purchase price, or the location of the establishment).

·         Where you have only a limited space for food preparation.

·         Where you have not the specialized preparation equipment available.

·         Where your kitchen personal do not possess sufficient craft skills.

Labor and food costs:

The use of convenience foods has increased considerably in the recent years. Much of this growth should be seen in context of the need to reduce labor costs. Not only are a fewer staff needed to produce a similar number of meals if convenience foods are used; the remaining staff do not need to be highly skilled.

The cost of many convenience foods are higher than that of the fresh foods in season, but manufacturers argue that the cost of labor, fuel, wastage and equipment depreciation must also be considered. Convenience foods do offer an alternative to fresh commodities at periods of the year when the cost of fresh items could be very high.

Special Points concerning convenience foods:

1.      The large range of convenience foods available allows the caterer to offer a wider range of menu dishes.

2.      Convenience foods are consistent in standard, with a stable pricing structure.

3.      Wastage can be reduced considerably, particularly in situations where menu items are cooked or re-heated straight from the freezer.

4.      Cleaning, fuel, and maintenance costs are reduced when the kitchen is opened for shorter periods.

5.      Many catering operations are not geared up to using up leftover cooked and raw items. When cooking to order, excess is not produced if convenience foods are used.

6.      Portion control is made easier by using a specified portion size. Many items are available in single portion packs or individually frozen.

7.      An unexpected high demand can be accommodated more easily using convenience foods.

8.      Convenience foods require less storage space, and stock control is easier.

9.      Always follow the manufacturers’ recommendations.

 Advantages of convenience foods

1.      It saves time, space and labor

2.      Since food is pre-portioned there is control over issue

3.      Better control over total number of portions cooked for banquets and buffets as cooking time is short and hence can be cooked at last the minute.

4.      Exact kitchen balance can be mentioned at the end of the day.

5.      Availability throughout the year

6.      As seasonal fluctuations do not affect prices menu prices can be standardized.

Dis-advantages of convenience foods

1.      Not have traditional aroma, flavor, and characteristic to fresh cook- food.

2.      Where electricity is not regular and stable there is a risk of holding costly inventories at sub zero temperatures

3.      Variety is restricted – ones available under brand labels: if staff skilled to improvise, modify an existing convenience foods to provide variety are kept on payroll, then the advantage in labor saving is lost.

Examples of some Convenience Foods available in the market

In the broadest sense of the term all canned and bottled goods can be termed as convenience foods as they embrace one or the other aims of convenience foods industry. Frozen foodstuffs, precut steaks, dressed and portion cut poultry, ready to use roasting birds, semi-processed vegetables in polythene bags, dehydrated soup mixes, fruit purees and concentrates, milk powders, egg powders, ready to use puff pastry cut to shape e.g. vol-au-vents, sausage rolls, etc are all examples of freely available convenience foods which are made by various manufacturers and their brand names.

Culinary Trends....Origin of Veganism...

Definition of Cookery:

Cookery is defined as a "chemical process", the mixing of ingredients; the application and withdrawal of heat; decision-making, technical knowledge and manipulative skills. In the more advanced stages a further element occurs- that of creativity. Cookery is considered to be both an art and technology. Food preparation is a modern term in professional cookery. It denotes preparation and cooking. It follows a flow pattern which commences with the purchasing and selection of materials, their handling, processing and the ultimate presentation of the dishes to the customer, where "food service" takes over. In French, the word "Cuisine" denotes the art of cooking- preparing dishes, and the place- the kitchen in which they are prepared.

The Origin of Cooking:

The art of cooking is ancient. The first cook was a primitive man, who had put a chunk of meat close to the fire, which he had lit to warm himself. He discovered that the meat heated in this way was not only tasty but it was also easier to masticate. From this moment in unrecorded past cooking has evolved to reach the present level of sophistication.

Classes of Professional Cookery:

There are 3 classes of professional cookery, associated with the craftsman and they are graded according to the quality of the materials used. The classes are:

(1)   Cuisine simple or plain cookery, where the basic necessities are used and the craftsman produces dishes of the highest standard possible with a minimum number of materials.

(2)   Cuisine Bourgeoise or middle class cookery. This type of cookery provides better materials and in the hands of the craftsman these materials produce more complicated dishes of a better quality.

(3)   Cuisine Haute or high cookery is that in which the very best possible materials are used. The craftsman uses these materials to their best advantage and produces dishes of the best quality. This class produces highly complicated dishes i.e. classical dishes.

Origins of modern cookery

Vegetarian and ethnic dishes

The most common reason vegetarians do not eat meat, is their dislike of killing animals for food. Religion and health are the other main reasons.

Some vegetarians will not eat any foods of animal origin, e.g. eggs, milk, honey even though they do not involve the death of animals. Some will not wear clothes, shoes or accessories, which are made from leather. Some will not eat particular vegetables. Vegetarians tend to feel that it is wasteful and/or unhealthy to eat foods, which are over-refined, e.g. white flour and white rice, or they have the major part of the proteins, mineral and fiber content is removed after processing. Some people used to orders food stuff in their natural form, but cannot be considered actually vegetarians. They prefer foods, which are unrefined or unprocessed as possible.

The various degrees of vegetarianism's have names:

·         Semi-vegetarians or demi-vegetarians: those who eat mainly vegetarian diet , but occasionally eat meat and fish

·         Ova-lacto-vegetarian: diet includes milk, dairy products and eggs. The majority of vegetarians in the UK are of this type. Besides meat, fish and poultry they will not eat products made from dead animals, e.g. suet, lard.

·         Lacto-vegetarian: eggs are also excluded from the diet.

·         Ovo- vegetarian: includes eggs but not milk or milk products.

·         Vegan: eats vegetables, fruits and other products of plants (e.g. milk, cheese made from soya). All foods of animal origin are excluded.

·         Fruitarian or Fructarian: diet consists only of raw fruit, nuts and berries. They usually exclude all grains and processed foods. Honey may not be acceptable.

The evolution of Vegetarianism

Historically, vegetarianism was often based on philosophical beliefs. Followers of certain sects of Hinduism and Buddhism have a centuries old tradition of not eating animal flesh because of beliefs in the sacredness of all life and the re-incarnation of souls into the bodies of other living things. Roman Catholic Trappist monks still practice vegetarianism to fulfill their vows of austerity and self-sacrifice.

Modern vegetarianism entered public consciousness during the 19^th century. Beginning in 1847, the Vegetarian Society, a British non-religious organization, popularized the term vegetarian. The promotion of vegetarianism gained strength worldwide in 1908 when the International Vegetarian Union was founded: the Union, which brings together vegetarian societies from all over the world in a series of congresses, is still operating as a nonprofit organization. Some 20th century vegetarians tend to reject eating meat because they believe that killing of animals is both unnecessary and cruel. Other vegetarians also believe that using available land to raise vegetables and grain instead of cattle and other animals makes good economical and ecological sense. 

Vegetarianism and health

More recently, people have adopted vegetarian diets based on scientific studies showing that diets high in fatty animal foods may contribute to the early development of disease, including obesity, coronary artery disease, high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus and colorectal cancer.

The vegetarian plant-based diet typically has the advantage of being low in saturated fat, cholesterol, and salt, but it can be lacking in other ways. Vegetarians need to plan their diets with special care in order to obtain the essential nutrients received from diets that include meat, fish, and poultry.

HINDUS

Food observances help to define caste ranking: Brahmins are the highest caste because they eat only those foods prepared in the finest manner (pakka), everyone else takes inferior (kacca) food.  Pakka is the only kind that can be offered in feasts to gods, to guests of high status, and to persons who provide honorific services.  Food is regarded as pakka if it contains ghee (clarified butter), which is very costly fat and which is believed to promote health and virility.  Kacca is defined as inferior because it contains ghee; it is used as ordinary family fare or as daily payment for servants and artisans.

When food serves as payment for services (e.g. washing), the quality of the food depends on the relative ranks of the parties to the transaction; the person making the payment gives inferior food, such as coarser bread, to a lower ranking person performing the service. Performance of a service denotes that a person is ready to accept some kind of food, and giving food denotes an expectation that a service will be performed.  Members of subordinate castes pick up the dirty plates of members of superior castes, as at village feasts. Food left on plates after eating is defined as garbage (jutha); it is felt to be polluted by the eater’s saliva. This garbage may be handled in the family by a person whose status is lower than the eater’s, such as a wife. Such food may be fed to domestic animals; among humans outside the family it can only be given to members of the lower castes, such as sweepers. The highest Brahmins do not accept any cooked food from members of any caste, but uncooked food may be received from or handled by members of any caste. Nor will such Brahmins accept water across caste lines. Cow’s milk is ritually pure and cannot be defiled, but a Brahmin will not accept milk from an untouchable – a member of the lowest caste groups – lest it has been diluted with water.

KOSHER

Yiddish Kosher, Hebrew KASHER (fit or proper), in Judaism, the fitness of an object for ritual purposes. Though generally applied to foods that meet the requirements of the dietary laws.

Concerning the dietary laws, kosher implies:

(1)   That the food is not derived from animals, birds or fish prohibited in Leviticus 11 or Deuteronomy 14

(2)   That the animals or birds have been slaughtered by ritual method of shehitah.

(3)   That the meat has been salted to remove the blood after the carcass has been critically examined for physical blemishes and that the ischiatic nerve has been removed from the hindquarters and

(4)   That meat and milk have not been cooked together and that different utensils have been employed.

So called Kosher wine is prepared under observation to prevent libations to idols and by Talmudic extension to avoid handling by non Jews. The special method of slaughtering animals called shehitah, consists of an incision made across the neck of the animal or fowl by a qualified person specially trained for ritual slaughter, with a special knife that is razor sharp and has a smooth edge with absolutely no nicks. The cutting must be made by moving the knife in a single swift uninterrupted sweep, and not by pressure or by stabbing. The cut severs the arteries, rendering the animal unconscious and permitting the blood to drain from the body. The slaughterer recites a prayer before the act.

VEGANISM

Veganism practice of excluding all animal products and their derivatives from the diet for moral, social, or religious motives. Veganism has stricter principles that vegetarianism – meat, poultry and fish are all rejected, but so are animal derived food stuffs such as dairy produce and gelatin. Most vegans’ adherents of veganism, also condemn the wearing of fur and leather.

The reasons why people became vegans vary. The majority of vegans condemn the killing or exploitation of animals for profit: some believe in the health benefits of a vegan diet: many also argue that the maintenance of animals is an uneconomic use of natural resources, and that the land used to graze animals would be better used to grow crops and thus increase the world’s food supply.

MUSLIMS

As with many aspects of personal life, the Koran also provides guidelines on eating and drinking. Muslims are forbidden to consume certain kinds of food and drink. Two of the most commonly known are:

·         Pork

·         Alcoholic beverages

Any animal that has died from natural causes is also forbidden. Muslims may only eat from an animal that has been slaughtered properly -- blood drained as much as possible. Although mentioned specifically as wine, many Muslims avoid alcohol by avoiding cooking wine and any alcohol-based medicine.

Islam places a very strong emphasis on cleanliness in everything. As such, before performing our daily prayers, ablution, as means of cleansing cleanliness is also extended to toher matters, especially in context of food and drink.

The Qur'an has numerous injunctions, instructing Muslims to choose and consume good and wholesome foodstuffs.

In the selection of food and drink, Islam has laid down three very important guidelines, namely:

1.      Whether the consumption of foodstuff is prohibited by Allah,

2.      Whether the foodstuff is obtained through Halal or Haram means, and

3.      Whether or not the material is harmful to health.

      There are several factors that determine the Halal/Haram status of a particular foodstuff. Amongst others, it is dependent on its nature, how it is processed and how it is obtained. As an example, any product from pig would be considered as Haram because the material itself is Haram. On the other hand, beef from an animal which has not been slaughtered according to Islamic rites would still be considered Haram. And of course, a stolen foodstuff or foodstuffs that ar acquired through means that are incompatible with Islamic teaching, would also be Haram. Food and drink that are poisonous or intoxicating are obviously Haram because they are harmful to health.

If we look carefully, the concept of Haram in Islam has very specific motives, namely:

1.      To preserve the purity of religion.

2.      To safeguard the Islamic mentality.

3.      To preserve life.

4.      To safeguard property.

5.      To safeguard future generations.

6.     To maintain self-respect and integrity.

    

      Thus the consumption of Haram foods and drinks may have undesirable effects on the above mentioned factors.

In the context of our daily food intake, any foodstuff that causes, or has the potential to cause, any negative effect to the mind, spirit, integrity and health, is Haram. The habitual consumption of Haram foods may be manifested by the exhibition of impure spirit, unsound mind, impairment of personal character and unhealthy body.

Islam has introduced the concept of slaughter, whereby a naturally Halal animal would have to be properly slaughtered prior to consumption. The act of slaughtering is to ensure the quality of meat and to avoid any microbial contamination. For example, a dead but unslaughtered animal is normally associated with disease. Most disease originated or carried in the animal's blood. Therefore, slaughtering is mandatory to ensure the complete drainage of blood from the animal's body, thus minimizing the chance of microbial infection. This is compatible with the overall concept of cleanliness that is always emphasized in Islam.

Apart from ensuring the cleanliness of foodstuffs, Islam prohibits the usage of any materials that are detrimental to spiritual or mental well-being of a person, such as alcoholic drinks, drugs, etc. Since Islam has always encouraged its followers to choose wholesome, clean and Halal foods, this awareness is always propagated in the Muslim society. This awareness is strengthened by the widespread knowledge, extolling the virtues of consuming clean and Halal food, and its relationship to our daily religious practices. The population nowadays is even more exposed to the various kinds of ingredients and manufactured foods, arising from the advancement of science and technology in more pertinent examples of such materials are the food additives "Gelatine" and "Emulsifiers" or the addition of rennet in cheese manufacture. The Muslim communities would like to know whether or not the ingredients or the finished foods contain any Haram substance. These products can become Halal if the raw materials are Halal and the process in compatible with the Islamic way.  To determine the Halal/Haram status of foodstuffs and other materials, Islam has alid general guidelines on this matter, namely:

ü      All the raw materials and ingredients used must be Halal. 

ü      Naturally Halal animals, such as cattle, goats etc. must be slaughtered according to Islamic rites, the rituals specify that the act must be performed by a mentally sound Muslim, to sever the blood and respiratory channels of the animal, using a very sharp cutting tool such as a knife.

ü      The Halal ingredient must not be mixed, or even come into contact with Haram materials, such as products from pig or dog, during storage, transport, cooking, serving etc.